A growing number of American universities offer graduate education in peace and conflict studies. Most of these programs have appeared since 1970, and are affiliated with departments or schools of sociology, political science, psychology, law, or theology. Graduates of these programs generally receive Masters or professional degrees, although recent years have seen a steady increase in the number of doctoral programs. Some of these programs confer their own degrees, but more often they are constituted as a "concentration" within a traditional discipline (such as sociology), or as the focus of an interdisciplinary degree.

Just as undergraduate peace studies programs vary in their approach and structure, a diverse group of graduate programs falls within the parameters of this Guide. These programs can be divided into six broad areas, although many graduate programs also combine elements of two or more of these areas:

- Peace and justice in the religious context
- General peace and conflict studies
- Mediation and conflict resolution
- Citizen participation in socioeconomic development
- Arms control and international security
- Public interest law and alternative dispute resolution

Peace and Justice in the Religious Context
The earliest graduate programs in peace studies were established by religious institutions, particularly the historic peace churches (the Brethren, Mennonites, and Society of Friends). Most of these programs still exist, offering a curriculum that combines theological perspectives on peace and justice, a commitment to social activism, and an emphasis on the relevance of ethical behavior to relations between groups and societies. Graduates of these programs, who receive Masters or Doctoral degrees, usually pursue careers in the ministry, in education, or in community-based social justice organizations.

General Peace and Conflict Studies
The second group of programs offer a comprehensive approach to issues of peace and conflict, building upon developments in the peace research field and in the undergraduate peace studies curriculum since the mid-1970s. These programs have grown largely out of dissatisfaction with traditional approaches to international affairs, and typically focus their curricula on the pursuit of "positive peace." A number of programs have explicitly adopted a "world order" perspective on global problems, holding that the values of peace, economic justice, environmental balance, and democratic participation are interrelated, and can only be realized together. Several graduate programs of this sort exist, notably those at Notre Dame and American University in the United States and at Bradford University in England; several other institutions have also introduced new programs along these lines.

Conflict Resolution and Negotiation
The third, and most varied group of programs is in the field of conflict resolution, mediation, and negotiation. Usually rooted in law, psychology, and sociology, these programs train students in both the theory and practice of nonviolent conflict resolution. In the programs affiliated with legal training, this field is generally known as "alternative dispute resolution" (ADR) and is viewed as an innovative complement to litigation (the traditional Western method of settling civil disputes). In some areas--such as family disputes, labor negotiations, consumer fraud, community disturbances, gang rivalries, and hostage incidents--traditional methods of dispute resolution are increasingly being replaced by the techniques developed by the field of conflict resolution.

A few programs in this field, especially those at George Mason, Harvard, and Syracuse Universities, are developing the theoretical basis for applying techniques of non-coercive conflict resolution to macro-level dynamics, such as inter-group relations, international border disputes, and disputes in the environmental area. A growing number of people are pursuing graduate education in this area, finding career opportunities in government, community agencies, consulting firms, and academia.

Citizen Participation in Socioeconomic Development
Programs in the fourth category emphasize citizen participation and attention to grassroots concerns in social and economic development in the United States and abroad. The curricula of these programs encompass problems of social change, economic development, environmental protection, public policy, education, and political economy. These programs can be said to emphasize the pursuit of "positive peace" in their curricula. Graduates of these programs often go on to work with private voluntary organizations such as CARE, Oxfam, and the Red Cross, or with community-based social action projects of the sort described in the Careers chapter. Programs in this area include those at Clark and Tufts Universities and at Boston College.

Arms Control and International Security
The fifth group of programs in this guide provide a strong grounding in arms control and international peacemaking activities in addition to a more traditional background in national security studies. At present, most of the graduate programs in the security studies field focus on the design and management of U.S. defense programs, and are therefore not included in this guide; however, several exceptions have been made for those which offer students a broader perspective on arms control, international security, U.N. peacekeeping, or otherwise make exemplary efforts in these areas. Programs of this type, including those at Columbia, Harvard, Stanford, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, can be said to encompass the pursuit of "negative peace" in their curricula.

Law
The sixth group of programs reflects two recent innovations in the traditional law school curriculum which make it especially relevant to peace studies: an emphases on public interest law, and the development of alternative dispute resolution methods (that is, the substitution of arbitration and mediation for traditional litigation). Law schools known for their special attention to one or both of these sub-fields are listed below in a special section following the general listing of graduate programs.

This brief summary of the history and range of graduate programs in peace and conflict studies is intended only as an introduction for students who plan to undertake their own, more exhaustive search for appropriate graduate programs. In selecting programs for this guide, only those with a specific focus on peace studies, or which incorporate aspects of peace studies into their program, have been included. Traditional graduate programs in international relations, economic development, political science, sociology, psychology, and other relevant fields have not been included in this list as they can be found in any standard reference to graduate schools; nevertheless, those in search of graduate education should certainly consider those programs, as their subject matters are clearly relevant to understanding the nature of global conflict and charting peaceful avenues for change.